Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


l 


https://archive.org/details/leafprintsorglimOOhime 


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@a»te»ts. 


Preface,  5 

Lesson  of  the  Illustration, 7 

Historical  Introduction, 11 

MANUAL. 

Preliminary  Remarks, 17 

Leaf  Negatives,  . ....  19 

Waxed  Prints  as  Negatives, 21 

Silver  Process, 22 

General  Outline, 22 

Paper, 23 

Salting  and  Albumenizing, 24 

Plain  Paper, 24 

Albumenized  Paper,  ........  25 

Sensitizing, 26 

Fuming  with  Ammonia, 27 

Ammonio-Nitrate  Process, 28 

3 


& — —4 


Exposure  to  Light, 29 

Toning  and  Fixing, 30 

Washing  and  Mounting, 33 

Printing  by  Development, 34 

Processes  without  Silver, 35 

Ferricyanide  op  Potassium  (Blue), 35 

Bichromate  op  Potassa  (Brown), 35 

Removal  op  Stains, 30 

Apparatus  and  Chemical?,  37 


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preface. 


No  one  of  the  methods  suggested  for  taking  impressions  of  leaves 
for  botanical  purposes  surpasses  the  photographic  in  beauty  or 
accuracy,  whilst  it  has  an  additional  recommendation  in  the  easy, 
interesting,  and  practical  lesson  in  science  that  it  may  be  made  to 
teach,  and  the  delightful  recreation  it  affords. 

The  practical  study  of  science  is  beginning  to  displace  the  old 
method  of  simply  burdening  the  memory  with  the  dry,  unfruitful, 
and  consequently,  uninteresting  facts  of  a text-book.  A certain 
amount  of  practical  work  by  the  pupil  has  been  added  to  the  usual 
course  of  experimental  lectures,  even  in  some  of  our  best  female 
seminaries.  Facts  and  principles  thus  practically  learned  are  re- 
tained by  the  memory,  and  suggest  themselves  readily  when  occa- 
sion demands,  whilst  the  discipline  involved  in  their  acquirement 
is  not  accomplished  by  other  branches  of  study,  and  enables  the 
pupil  to  read  more  intelligently  ordinary  scientific  treatises. 

No  special  application  of  science  is  better  adapted  to  amateur 
5 

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¥ 

pursuit  tlian  Photography,  as  the  number  of  all  classes  engaged  in 
it  in  our  own  country  and  England  shows.  It  requires  little  and 
inexpensive  apparatus,  and  rewards  ordinary  skill  and  perseverance, 
whilst  it  presents  attractive  fields  wide  enough  for  the  most  acute 
investigation.  By  reason  of  the  nice  conditions  and  almost  infin- 
itesimally small  quantities  involved  in  its  practice,  it  trains  the 
mind  to  habits  of  close  observation,  of  method,  and  of  cleanliness, 
and  familiarizes  it  with  the  most  common  chemical  manipulations. 

These  few  pages  are  simply  intended  to  direct  the  attention  to 
the  most  salient  points  in  the  history,  theory,  and  practice  of  pho- 
tography,— as  a glimpse  at,  rather  than  an  introduction  to  practical 
photography.  They  will  serve  to  enable  any  one  to  read  intelli- 
gently the  more  exhaustive  works  and  the  journals  devoted  to  the 
art. 

The  details  of  the  manipulations  arc  adapted  to  the  most  limited 
facilities,  and  are  so  minutely  described,  that  by  the  aid  of  the  ac- 
companying explanations  of  the  principles  involved,  the  amateur 
may  be  able  to  work  his  way  without  difficulty. 

The  process  b}1"  development  was  only  intended  to  illustrate  the 
main  feature  of  Daguerre’s  discovery,  and  is  therefore  scarcely 
complete  enough  for  practical  purposes. 


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Lesson  of  the  Illustration. 


“ Leaves  take  all  kinds  of  strange  shapes,  as  if  to  invite  us  to 
examine  them.  Star-shaped,  heart-shaped,  spear-shaped,  arrow- 
shaped,  fretted,  fringed,  cleft,  furrowed,  serrated,  sinuated ; in 
whorls,  in  tufts,  in  spires,  in  wreaths  endlessly  expressive,  decep- 
tive, fantastic,  never  the  same  from  footstalk  to  blossom;  they 
seem  perpetually  to  tempt  our  watchfulness,  and  take  delight  in 
outstripping  our  wonder.”  “ Jags  and  rents  are  their  laws  of  being. 

The  outline  of  a buttercup  leaf,  how  delicately  rent  into 

beauty ! As  in  the  aiguilles  of  the  great  Alps,  so  in  this  lowest 
field  herb,  where  rending  is  the  law  of  being,  it  is  the  law  of  loveli- 
ness.” This  quotation,  with  Luskin’s  impress  sharp  upon  it,  gives 
a fragment  of  an  artist’s  view  of  leaves.  The  illustration  accom- 
panying this  little  tract,  is  intended  to  point  toward  an  equally  in- 
teresting and  important,  though,  perhaps,  more  prosy  view  of 
leaves, — to  act  as  a finger-board  toward  a botanical  text-book. 

One  great  object  of  the  study  of  botany,  is  to  enable  the  student 
to  recognize  readily  the  individuals  of  the  surrounding  flora,  to  call 
them  by  their  names,  and  to  arrange  them  according  to  their  de- 
grees of  kinship. 

7 

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The  number  and  distinctness  of  the  characteristics  of  a plant 
often  concentrated  in  its  leaf,  and  the  comparative  ease  with  which 
the  story  written  on  the  leaf  can  be  deciphered,  make  the  study  of 
its  morphology  peculiarly  important  and  interesting  to  the  beginner 
in  botayy. 

The  leaves  for  the  illustration  were  selected  from  the  limited 
range  of  a hortus  siccus,  and  were  not  quite  as  well  adapted  there- 
fore, to  photographic  printing  as  freshly  gathered  ones;  they  will 
serve,  however,  to  direct  attention  to  the  account  of  the  history  of 
plants,  that  a collection  of  their  leaves  can  give. 

In  one  of  the  specimens,  a leaf  of  the  Acer  dasycarpum , one  of  our 
commonest  maples,  live  large  veins  or  ribs  radiate  from  the  base 
and  smaller  veins,  and  veinlets  are  given  off  in  all  directions,  which 
by  their  interosculations  with  each  other,  impart  a netted  appear- 
ance to  the  leaf.  In  another  specimen,  a leaf  of  the  Polygonatum 
multiflorum,  or  Solomon’s  Seal,  the  veins  run  unbroken  from  base 
to  apex,  parallel  to  each  other,  connected  by  little  veinlets.  The 
third  specimen  is  a piece  of  a branch  of  the  Adiantum  pedatum,  or 
Maidenhair,  which  scarcely  does  justice  to  the  most  delicate  and 
graceful  of  our  North  American  ferns.  The  veins  in  it  are  given 
off  in  pairs,  and  are  therefore  called  forked  veins. 

The  character  of  the  venation  of  a leaf  is  so  readily  distinguished, 
that  it  is  very  easy  to  classify  a plant  with  those  having  reticulated 
or  net-veined,  nerved  or  parallel-veined,  or  forked-veined  leaves. 

But  the  venation  of  the  leaf  of  a plant,  with  very  few  exceptions, 
tells  of  other  very  marked  traits  of  plant  life,  much  less  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  tyro  in  botanical  observation.  Thus  it  says  in 
the  leaf  first  described,  that  the  plant  on  which  it  grew  belonged  to 
the  grand  series  of  Pji^enogamous  or  Flowering  Plants;  that  it 
belonged  to  the  first  grand  division  of  this  series,  called  from  the 
nature  of  the  embryo  in  the  seed  Dicotyledonous,  or,  also  on  account 
of  the  manner  in  which  the  material  of  which  the  plant  is  com- 
posed,  has  been  deposited  in  the  formation  of  its  stem,  Exogenous, — 

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* X 

outside-growers;  also  that  the  numerical  plan  of  the  plant  is  based 
on  the  number  five. 

It  would  not  he  easy  for  the  beginner  in  botanical  analysis,  to 
detect  all  the  traits  of  character  common  to  the  Maple  and  the 
Buttercup.  For  whilst  the  dicotyledonous  character  of  the  embryo 
would  be  very  apparent  in  the  seed  of  the  Maple,  in  the  seed  of  the 
Buttercup  it  would  require  some  skill  to  find  it.  The  examination 
of  the  stems  would  scarcely  reveal  with  certainty  to  the  undisci- 
plined observer,  similarity  in  the  mode  of  growth.  The  numerical 
plan  of  a plant  is,  in  many  cases,  still  more  difficult  to  discover. 

But  the  reticulated  venation  of  the  leaf  points  unmistakably  to  all 
these  facts  of  kinship,  between  the  stately  “ builder  plants”  and 
one  of  the  humbler  “ tented  plants,”  as  Ruskin  calls  them,  that 
cover  the  ground. 

Thus  the  nerved  or  parallel-veined  leaf  of  the  Solomon’s  Seal  tells 
just  as  full  and  clear  a story  about  its  plant,  and  as  unmistakably 
publishes  its  relationship  to  the  Grasses,  the  Indian  corn,  the  Palms, 
and  all  the  other  plants  of  the  second  grand  division  of  the  flower- 
ing plants,  called  from  the  nature  of  the  embryo  Monocotyledonous, 
or  from  their  mode  of  growth,  Endogenous , — inside-growers , and 
having  as  the  base  of  their  numerical  plan  the  number  three. 

The  forked  veins  of  the  Maidenhair,  indicate  as  truly  its  place  in 
the  second  great  series  of  plants  called  Cryptogamous  or  Flower- 
less Plants,  and  also  that  it  belongs  to  the  class  of  Acrogens  of  this 
series,  and  to  the  order  Filices  or  Ferns,  plants  that  seem  to  con- 
centrate in  their  leaves,  or  fronds  as  they  are  called,  with  the  leaf, 
and  flower,  and  seed,  the  beauty  of  all  three. 

Besides  this  general  classification,  that  the  structure  of  the  leaf, 
especially  of  the  most  important  series,  the  flowering  plants, 
enables  us  readily  to  make,  the  general  outline  of  their  forms,  in- 
timately connected  with  their  venation,  affords  us  the  readiest 
marks  for  characterizing  species  and  varieties,  thus  rendering 
familiarity  with  leaf  forms  one  of  the  greatest  aids  in  making  the 

b 9 

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acquaintance  of  the  flora  of  a neighborhood.  Thus  the  leaves  of 
the  different  species  of  forest  trees,  when  placed  side  by  side, 
declare  to  a great  extent  very  minute  specific  differences,  and  the 
description  of  them  draws  largely  upon  the  technical  terms  of 
botany.  The  leaf  of  the  Acer  sacchariny.ni,  or  Sugar  Maple,  placed 
aside  of  the  leaf  in  the  illustration,  shows  at  once  a very  marked 
difference,  and  yet  one  hard  to  he  realized  by  one  not  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  technical  terms,  upon  reading  the  description  in 
the  Species  Plantar um. 

But  the  fronds  of  the  Ferns  reward  in  the  highest  degree  the 
study  of  leaf  morphology.  Almost  all  specific  and  generic  charac- 
teristics are  found  in  them,  when  the  nature  of  the  fructification, — 
the  shape  of  the  sori,  their  position,  &c.,  is  considered, — all  of  which 
can  be  perfectly  represented  by  the  photographic  method  used  for 
the  illustration,  in  which  the  marginal  fructification  is  beautifully 
rendered.  Thus  the  place  of  this,  one  of  the  lower  orders  of  vege- 
tation in  our  earth’s  flora  in  pre- Adamic  times,  is  written  in  the  im- 
pressions of  its  leaves  upon  the  rocks.  They  tell  that  during  the 
carboniferous  era,  when  the  vast  beds  of  coal  were  stowed  away  for 
the  subsequent  use  of  man,  the  ferns  which  at  present  seem  only 
to  serve  to  relieve  by  their  freshness  and  beauty,  the  waste  and 
gloomy  places,  preponderated  in  number  of  species  and  genera, 
and  in  some  of  their  representatives,  even  in  our  zone,  aspired  to 
the  dignity  of  treehood,  as  they  now  only  do  in  the  tropics. 

For  the  methods  of  selection  and  preparation  of  leaves  for  photo- 
graphic purposes,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  section  on  negatives. 


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historical  Intatoucttom 


The  art  of  Photography  rests  upon  the  sensitiveness  of  certain 
substances,  especially  compounds  of  silver,  'to  the  action  of  light, 
by  which  their  chemical  or  physical  nature  is  changed.  The  term, 
therefore,  includes  all  processes  for  “ drawing  by  light,”  even  the 
use  of  indelible  ink.  The  influence  of  light  on  animal  life  and 
vegetation  was  early  noticed,  and  the  darkening  effect  of  light  upon 
the  chloride  of  silver  was  known  to  the  Alchemists.  In  the  early 
part  of  this  century,  Wedgewood  and  Davy  made  the  first  experi- 
ments with  a view  to  the  adaptation  of  this  peculiar  sun-force  to  the 
performance  of  artistic  drudgery.  They  moistened  a sheet  of  paper 
with  a solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  and  projected  the  shadow  of  the 
object  they  wished  to  copy  upon  it.  The  portion  upon  which  the 
light  fell  was  darkened ; that  on  which  the  shadow  fell  remained 
white.  This  process  was  only  valuable  for  the  promise  it  held  out, 
as  it  required  hours  to  produce,  at  best,  very  poor  silhouettes.  It 
was  abandoned  for  want  of  a means  of  fixing  the  pictures,  that  is, 
of  preserving  the  white  portion  unchanged  by  the  subsequent  action 
of  light  to  which  it  might  be  exposed.  More  subtle  investigations 
11 

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by  Hersehell,  Niepce,  Daguerre,  Talbot,  and  others,  led  to  the  dis- 
covery of  many  substances  available  for  photographic  purposes. 
These  investigations  culminated  in  the  invention  of  Daguerre. 
Whilst  employing  a camera  to  assist  him  in  his  profession  as  a 
scene  painter,  in  1824,  it  occurred  to  him  to  search  for  some  method 
for  rendering  permanent  the  beautiful  pictures  formed  in  the 
camera.  The  Alchemists  never  had  originated  a more  unprom- 
ising pursuit.  So  intense,  though  uniformly  unsuccessful,  were 
Daguerre’s  efforts,  that  his  wife  asked  medical  advice  in  regard 
to  the  symptoms  of  insanity  in  her  husband.  After  years  of  toil 
in  the  most  jealous  secrecy,  and  attended  only  by  continual  dis- 
appointment, the  following  accident  came  to  his  assistance.  It 
should  not,  however,  detract  from  his  merit,  for  he  had  been  obliged 
to  work  his  way  across  the  path  of  such  an  accident,  and  to  learn 
how  to  make  it  fruitful.  In  the  course  of  his  numerous  experi- 
ments, he  submitted  polished  silver  tablets  to  the  action  of  vapor 
of  iodine  until  the  bright  surface  was  converted  into  a creamy 
yellow  one  of  iodide  of  silver.  He  then  caused  the  image  formed 
in  the  camera  to  fall  upon  the  plates  thus  prepared,  under  varying 
conditions,  with  a faint  hope  that  it  might  remain,  but  he  was 
obliged  to  stow  them  away,  one  after  another,  in  his  rubbish-box, 
apparently  unaffected,  to  be  re-polished  and  re-used  in  pursuit  of 
the  same  phantom.  Upon  taking  one  of  these  cast-away  plates 
from  the  box  to  re-polish  it,  to  his  great  astonishment  he  found 
upon  it  a perfect  realization  of  his  dream;  as  if  some  magician  in 
mockery  of  him,  in  the  dai’kness  of  the  closet,  had  drawn  upon  it 
the  image  to  which  it  had  been  exposed  in  the  camera. 

He  placed  several  iodized  plates  that  had  been  exposed  in  the 
camera,  in  the  box  as  before,  each  time,  however,  having  first  re- 
moved something  from  the  box.  Each  time  the  latent  invisible 
image  formed  by  a short  exposure  in  the  camera  was  developed  into 
a beautiful  visible  one  in  the  box.  At  last  everything  was  removed 
but  some  mercury.  The  magician  was  detected.  The  mercui’y, 


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* ^ 

which  had  volatilized  at  ordinary  temperature  had,  by  reason  of 
some  change  effected  in  the  iodide  of  silver,  only  condensed  upon 
the  portions  traced  by  light.  By  further  experiments,  he  succeeded 
in  fixing  the  images,  and  in  January,  1839,  exhibited  his  first  speci- 
mens. The  French  government,  under  lead  of  Arago  and  Gay- 
Lussac,  gave  the  process  as  “ a gift  to  the  world,”  by  pensioning 
Daguerre  and  Niepce,  his  equally  enthusiastic  but  less  fortunate 
co- laborer. 

Like  many  other  great  discoveries,  this  had  ripened  in  several 
countries  at  the  same  time.  In  England,  Talbot,  on  the  31st  of 
January,  read  a paper  on  “A  Method  of  Photogenic  Drawing.” 

His  experiments  had  been  directed  chiefly  to  the  production  of 
images  of  natural  objects,  especially  botanical  specimens.  His 
method  was  founded  upon  the  darkening  of  chloride  of  silver,  and 
was  substantially  that  given  in  the  accompanying  manual.  The 
production  of  “ pictures  of  lace,  leaves,  and  ferns,  which,”  to  quote 
his  own  language,  “ it  would  take  the  most  skillful  artist  days  or 
weeks  of  labor  to  trace  or  copy,  is  effected  by  the  boundless  powers 
of  natural  chemistry  in  a few  seconds.”  He  formed  chloride  of 
silver  on  a piece  of  paper,  as  described  in  this  manual,  placed  a leaf 
or  engraving  upon  it,  and  exposed  to  the  sunlight.  The  light 
darkened  the  chloride  beneath  the  transparent  and  white  parts  of 
the  leaf  or  engraving,  whilst  the  more  opaque  parts  protected 
the  chloride  beneath  them,  and  preserved  it  white.  So  also  the 
bright  sky  in  the  picture  of  a landscape  formed  in  the  camera 
would  produce  the  darkest  impression,  and  a dark  object  a very 
faint  one.  Such  pictures  with  reversed  light  and  shade  are  called 
negatives.  It  occurred  to  Talbot  to  place  a negative  upon  chlorided 
paper,  and  thus  to  produce  a negative  of  the  negative,  or  a perfect 
copy  of  the  original,  called  a positive.  From  a single  negative,  in 
this  way,  any  number  of  positives  can  be  made,  and  it  thus  becomes 
• the  photographic  equivalent  of  an  engraved  plate.  The  Calotype 
process  was  perfected  by  Talbot  in  1841,  and  embodied  Daguerre’s 
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discovery  of  a latent  impression  upon  iodide  of  silver,  which  less- 
ened the  time  required  so  much  as  to  allow  of  the  use  of  the  camera, 
and  the  method  of  multiplication,  suggested  by  himself,  by  the  em- 
ployment of  paper,  made  transparent  by  waxing,  to  receive  the 
image  instead  of  a silver  plate. 

Thus  the  change  of  color  produced  in  Chloride  of  Silver  by  light, 
suggested  the  earliest  form  of  Photography.  The  formation  in  a 
much  shorter  time  of  an  invisible  or  latent  but  developable  effect  upon 
Iodide  of  Silver,  gave  rise  to  processes  sufficiently  sensitive  for  the 
camera,  whilst  the  production  of  negatives  upon  transparent  sub- 
stances, such  as  waxed-paper  and  glass,  rendered  possible  a more 
extended  application  of  photography,  and  the  property  which  cer- 
tain substances,  as  the  Hyposulphite  of  Soda,  first  suggested  by 
Herschell,  have,  of  dissolving  unchanged  portions  of  the  silver  com- 
pound, whilst  they  do  not  affect  the  portions  acted  on  by  light, 
afforded  a simple  means  for  fixing  photographic  pictures. 

The  process  of  Wedgewood  and  Davy  required  hours  to  catch 
the  shadow  of  a stationary  object.  How  ships  scudding  before  the 
breeze,  the  breaking  waves,  the  cannon-ball  at  any  instant  of  its 
flight,  or  even  half  protruding  from  the  muzzle,  all  leave  their 
image  on  a film  of  matter  more  sensitive  than  the  retina  of  the 
eye.  Old  methods  of  multiplication  of  photographic  copies  have 
been  supplanted  by  more  rapid  and  cheaper  ones,  and  photolithog- 
raphy already  begins  to  fulfil  the  promises  it  has  long  held  out, 
by  furnishing  our  atlases  with  the  most  accurate  maps,  and  our 
books  with  first  class  illustrations.  All  arts  and  sciences  have  be- 
come more  or  less  indebted  to  photography,  and  the  numerous 
journals  devoted  solely  to  its  interests,  are  continually  filled  with 
new  processes  and  new  applications.  It  is  perfectly  faithful  in  the 
minutest  details,  it  commits  no  errors  of  observation ; the  smallest 
objects,  the  choicest  revelations  of  the  microscope,  that  demand 
much  skill  in  the  use  of  the  instrument  to  be  enjoyed  by  means  of 
it,  are  placed  before  every  one,  enlarged  several  thousand  diameters 


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“ by  the  wonderful  insight  of  heaven’s  broad  and  simple  sunshine.” 

In  medical  science,  photographs  of  malformations  and  morbid 
structures  are  made  to  replace  defective,  though  tediously  executed 
hand  drawings.  The  magnetic  needle,  as  it  obeys  during  the  day 
the  changes  in  the  earth’s  magnetism,  makes  a continuous  record 
of  its  variations  on  photographic  paper;  the  mercury  of  the  barom- 
eter records  its  fluctuations  by  the  same  means.  The  hourly  phases 
of  the  sun  and  its  eclipses,  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  the  interior  of  the 
eye  and  of  the  Pyramids,  all  are  photographically  mapped. 

The  stereoscope  multiplies  wonderfully  the  applications  of  pho- 
tography. It  affords  an  endless  variety  of  objects  from  art  and 
nature,  from  the  statuary  of  the  old  world  to  the  choicest  fragments 
of  the  interior  of  the  Mammoth  Cave  in  almost  tangible  form,  for 
the  fireside  entertainment.  It  exhibits  a new  view  of  the  moon, 
and  reproduces  perfectly  geological,  zoological,  botanical,  and 
mineralogical  specimens,  even  to  the  lustre  of  the  latter,  and  by  a 
still  further  application  of  the  stei’eoscopic  principle  in  photosculp- 
ture, photography  furnishes  all  the  details  necessary  for  a perfect 
statue. 

Thus  far,  however,  Photography,  though  many-eyed,  has  been 
color-blind ; but  there  are  promises  that  in  its  future,  these  mono- 
chromatic representations  will  be  displaced  by  perfect  reproduc- 
tions of  the  pictures  of  the  camera,  in  all  their  richness  of  color, 
just  as  they  fascinated  the  visionary  painter.  The  difficulties  in  the 
way,  seem  to  those  most  wdse  in  these  things,  to  be  almost  insur- 
mountable, but  all  are  hopeful. 

The  earnest  and  unremitting  experiments  of  Niepce  do  St.  Victor, 
nephew  of  Niepce,  Becquerel,  and  Poitevin,  have  advanced  Helio- 
chromy to  a point  analogous  to  that  at  which  Wedgewood  and 
' Davy  left  Photography.  Photographs  in  colors  have  been  pro- 
duced by  Poitevin,  but  his  process  is  sloio,  and  the  pictures  for  want 
of  a perfect  method  of  fixing,  arc  as  evanescent  as  the  shadows  caught 
more  than  half  a century  ago. 

15 

)&- — 


§ tit  i 


Prthminavq  J|emarks. 

Any  oi’dinary  room,  moderately  darkened  by  good  thick  blinds, 
best  yellow  or  red,  without  interfering  with  its  other  uses,  may  be 
employed  for  all  the  processes  given,  except  the  one  by  re-develop- 
ment, which  requires  more  absolute  exclusion  of  light  by  means  of 
shutters.  Pieces  of  carpet  or  matting  should  be  placed  beneath 
and  around  a small  operating  table,  as  far  as  the  photographic  use 
of  the  room  extends,  to  receive  the  inevitable  stains.  An  ordinary 
packing-box,  about  two  feet  long  and  sixteen  inches  square  at  each 
end,  will  serve  to  hold  all  the  apparatus,  and  may  be  adapted  to 
drying  paper  after  salting,  albumenizing,  and  sensitizing,  by  having 
strips  of  wood  nailed  along  the  back  and  front,  in  the  inside  about 
an  inch  from  the  top,  upon  which  narrow  strips  of  soft  wood  can 
rest  across  the  box.  On  these  strips  the  papers  may  be  hung,  by 
means  of  spring  clothes-clips,  having  pins  driven  in  one  end  and 


17 


bent  in  the  form  of  a hook,  or  the  paper  may  be  fastened  by  one 
corner  to  the  strip  of  soft  wood  by  a pin.  If  elothes-clips  are  used, 
different  sets  should  be  kept  for  salted  or  albumenized  paper,  sen- 
sitized paper,  and  washed  prints,  but  all  may  be  used  for  holding 
the  negative  in  printing.  A string  drawn  across  the  dark-room 
will  also  answer  to  hang  them  on.  Ordinary  oblong  queens  ware 
dishes  will  suffice  for  all  purposes,  but  at  least  one  porcelain  tray 
with  a spout,  such  as  can  be  obtained  at  any  photographic  depot, 
is  advisable  for  nitrate  of  silver  solutions.  With  some  practice, 
however,  a liquid  may  be  transferred  without  loss,  from  any  dish 
to  the  bottle,  by  placing  a moistened  glass  rod  against  the  edge  of 
the  dish,  and  pouring  the  liquid  slowly  along  it. 

A moist  pellet  of  cotton  placed  loosely  in  the  neck  of  a glass 
funnel  will  answer  for  filtering.  If  paper  filters  are  used,  and  they 
are  preferable,  a sheet  of  filter  paper  should  be  cut  into  circular 
pieces  of  such  a size,  that  when  they  are  folded  into  a quadrant, 
and  placed  in  the  glass  funnel,  they  will  not  project  above  the  edge 
of  the  funnel. 

Glass  rods  are  indispensable  in  operating  with  solutions  of  nitrate 
of  silver. 

A small  apothecaries’  scales  and  weights,  which  can  be  obtained 
for  a dollar,  will  answer  for  weighing  solids.  Water,  and  other 
liquids,  the  proportions  of  which  in  the  different  formulae  are  given 
in  terms  of  weights,  need  not  be  weighed.  The  proper  quantity  is 
obtained  by  measuring  in  an  ordinary  apothecaries’  measuring  glass. 
One  of  four  ounces  graduated  in  drachms  and  ounces,  will  meet  all 
requirements. 

Rain  water,  or  clear  spring  water,  will  answer  in. all  cases  where 
pure  water  is  mentioned. 

All  bottles  should  be  conspicuously  labelled,  and  if  they  contain  solu- 
tions, it  is  well  to  put  their  formulae  on  the  labels. 

A full  list  of  Apparatus  and  Chemicals  is  appended,  from  which 
the  amateur  can  make  a selection. 


%■ 


18 


*- 


Leaf  Bejjatkres. 


Although  any  ramble  will  furnish  leaf-negatives  ready  for  use 
without  subsequent  treatment,  there  are  a few  practical  hints  in 
regard  to  them  that  may  at  times  be  of  service.  Leaves  in  full 
vigor,  gathered  at  any  season,  will  print  well.  Spring  leaves  are, 
however,  the  least  intense.  Late  specimens,  therefore,  from  plants 
having  very  delicate  leaves,  will  give  the  most  vigorous  prints. 

In  gathering  leaves  for  photographic  purposes,  some  care  shbuld 
be  taken  to  procure  perfect  and  characteristic  specimens.  The 
margins  should  be  kept  as  free  from  overlapping  as  possible,  when 
the  leaves  are  placed  in  the  printing-frame  or  pressed.  Some  are 
more  easily  managed  if  very  slightly  wilted,  but  generally  the 
sooner  they  are  subjected  to  a slight  pressure,  the  better.  A port- 
folio or  ordinary  atlas,  supplied  with  sheets  of  printing-paper,  should 
be  taken  to  the  woods,  in  which  the  most  delicate  ones,  as  the 
maidenhair,  fine-haired  mountain  fern,  &c.,  can  be  placed  as  soon 
as  plucked.  Many  leaves  can  be  printed  from  without  pressing 
or  drying,  as  forest  leaves,  manj  ferns,  columbine,  anemone,  black 
currant,  &c.,  but  when  the  juices  of  the  leaf  may  be  expressed  by 
the  pressure  used  in  printing,  and  stain  the  sensitive  paper,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  subject  them  to  some  pressure  between  the  folds  of 
bibulous  paper.  They  should  not,  however,  be  dried  as  for  an 
herbarium. 

The  ribs  and  veins  in  prints  made  from  undried  leaves  appear 
as  sharply  defined  dark  lines,  and  the  whole  appearance  of  the 
prints  is  superior  to  those  made  from  dried  leaves,  in  which  the 


¥■ 


■* 


ribs  and  veins  are  represented  by  comparatively  ill-defined  white 
lines.  The  maple  leaf  of  the  accompanying  illustration,  can  there- 
fore easily  be  surpassed  by  any  reader,  by  printing  from  a freshly 
plucked  leaf. 

The  reason  of  the  difference  alluded  to  lies  in  the  fact,  that  the* 
ribs  and  veins,  whilst  filled  with  the  fluids  which  they  convey,  are  • 
transparent,  and  allow  the  light  to  pass  through,  and  make  a 
record  of  them  in  dark  lines.  When  dry  and  empty,  they  are 
opaque,  and  by  preventing  the  action  of  the  light,  produce  white 
lines. 

Dried  leaves  may  be  made  to  give  prints  in  all  respects  equal  to, 
and  sometimes,  even  superior  to  those  obtained  from  freshly-gath- 
ered ones,  by  soaking  them  for  several  hours  in  water,  until  the 
veins  become  expanded  and  filled.  They  must  then  be  pressed 
between  folds  of  bibulous  paper,  until  dry  enough  superficially  to 
be  printed  from.  After  this  treatment,  they  will  only  remain  in 
good  photographic  condition  several  days,  but  the  operation  can 
be  repeated  as  often  as  desired.  A little  glycerine  added  to  the 
water,  will  cause  the  veins  to  remain  transparent  longer,  and  a 
little  hydrochloric  acid  will  facilitate  the  filling  of  the  veins  in 
some  cases. 

When  it  is  desired  to  print  from  several  leaves,  upon  the  same 
piece  of  paper  at  the  same  time,  it  will  be  found  convenient  to 
fasten  them  to  the  glass'  by  means  of  dilute  gum-water.  Imme- 
diately after  being  fastened  to  the  glass  in  this  way,  they  should 
be  subjected  to  the  pressure  of  the  clothes-clips  as  in  printing  from 
them.  In  some  cases  it  is  best  to  place  the  leaves,  especially  dried 
ones,  between  folds  of  writing-paper,  and  subject  them  to  as  great 
a degree  of  pressure  as  can  be  obtained  by  means  of  an  ordinary 
letter-press,  before  fastening  them  on  the  glass.  If  the  leaves  ai’C 
not  of  the  same  intensity,  the  most  intense,  those  that  require  the 
longest  time  to  print,  may  be  bleached  as  much  as  necessary  by 
meana  of  Labarraque’s  solution,  or  those  least  intense  may  be 


%■ 


20 


* — ^ 

stained  light  yellow,  by  means  of  turmeric.  Small  plants,  with 
flowers  that  preserve  their  shape  somewhat  in  pressing,  as  violets, 
can  be  photographed  entire.  It  would  be  advisable  for  the  ama- 
teur to  begin  with  the  processes  with  Ferricyanide  ot'  Potassium 
and  Bichromate  of  Potash,  as  they  are  very  easy,  and  require 
but  one  chemical,  a few  clothes-clips,  and  pieces  of  glass,  and 
writing-paper.  The  bichromate  process  is  most  sensitive,  whilst 
the  ferricyanide  process  is  well  adapted  to  very  delicate  leaves. 

The  size  of  the  leaves  to  be  photographed  by  means  of  these  two 
processes,  is  ouly  limited  by  the  size  of  the  paper  and  glass. 

WAXED  PRINTS  AS  NEGATIVES. 

All  prints  taken  directly  from  the  leaves  have  a dark  back- 
ground ; the  general  effect  is  in  many  respects  rendered  more 
pleasing  by  reversing  this,  by  printing  again  from  one  of  these 
prints,  in  the  same  manner  as  from  the  leaf.  The  print  will  be 
more  perfect,  if  the  print  to  be  used  as  a negative  is  rendered  more 
transparent  by  waxing.;  for  this  purpose  the  following  method  will 
answer.  Melt  some  pure  white  wax  by  placing  it  in  a shallow 
vessel,  placed  in  a pan  of  boiling  water  on  the  stove.  Draw  pieces 
of  bibulous  paper  (fllter-paper  or  blotting-paper)  through  the  melted 
wax,  so  that  they  become  completely  saturated.  Place  a sheet  so 
waxed  upon  several  sheets  of  bibulous  paper,  and  upon  it  alternate 
layers  of  bibulous  and  waxed  paper,  until  about  half  a dozen  ivaxed 
papers  are  in  the  pile.  Place  on  top  several  sheets  of  bibulous 
paper,  and  press  the  whole  with  a flat-iron  that  has  been  heated 
by  being  placed  in  boiling  water.  All  the  sheets  will  become  uni- 
formly waxed  in  this  way.  In  order  to  wax  a print  to  be  used  as  a 
negative,  place  it  upon  bibulous  paper,  and  upon  it.  one  of  the  uni- 
formly waxed  sheets,  with  several  folds  of  paper  above  it,  and  press 
with  a flat-iron  warmed  as  before.  If  there  seems  to  be  an  excess 
of  wax  in  the  negative,  it  can  be  removed  by  pressing  it  as  before, 

21 

* 


but  simply  between  folds  of  bibulous  paper.  It  will  print  better 
than  its  appearance  will  indicate.  Prints  on  albumen  paper  make 
better  negatives  than  those  on  plain  paper. 

In  addition  to  the  class  of  negatives  without  the  camera,  a few 
collodion  negatives  of  portraits  and  views  are  excellent  for  practice. 
They  can  be  readily  obtained  from  any  photographer,  as  it  is  to 
their  interest  to  encourage  amateur  pursuit  of  the  art. 


Silver  ifracess. 


GENERAL  OUTLINE. 

From  the  preceding  historical  sketch,  the  general  character  of  all 
photographic  processes  may  be  seen.  A single  experiment  will 
serve  to  illustrate  more  clearly  the  action  of  light  on  Chloride  of 
Silver,  and  explain  the  chemistry  of  the  ordinary  printing  process. 
Fill  a test-tube,  or  champagne-glass,  with  rain-water,  drop  into  it  a 
small  crystal  of  Nitrate  of  Silver,  and  stir  with  a glass  rod  until 
entirely  dissolved;  then  add  a few  drops  of  a solution  of  common 
salt;  a dense,  white,  curdy  precipitate  of  chloride  of  silver  will  be 
formed.  The  reaction  is  due  to  an  interchange  of  elements,  called 
double  decomposition. 

Nitrate  of  Silver  -f-  Chloride  of  Sodium 
form  Nitrate  of  Soda  -f-  Chloride  of  Silver. 

The  nitric  acid  and  oxygen  that  were  united  with  the  silver  to 
form  nitrate  of  silver  are  now  united  with  the  sodium  to  form 
nitrate  of  soda,  and  the  chlorine  that  was  united  with  the  sodium, 
is  now  united  with  the  silver  to  form  chloride  of  silver.  The  ele- 
ment chlorine,  by  reason  of  its  superior  affinity  for  silver,  will  leave 


22 


any  substance  with  which  it  may  be  combined,  as  sodium  (as  in 
the  experiment),  potassium,  ammonium,  and  take  silver  out  of  any 
of  its  compounds  that  may  be  present  to  form  chloride  of  silver, 
provided  both  compounds  are  in  solution,  so  that  the  little  atoms 
can  have  freedom  of  motion  enough  to  arrange  themselves  accord- 
ing to  their  affinities.  Chlorine  gas  passed  over  a silver  plate  will 
also  form  chloride  of  silver.  If  instead  of  chloride  of  sodium, 
iodide  of  sodium  be  used  in  the  experiment,  or  if  a silver  plate 
be  exposed  to  vapor  of  iodine,  Iodide  of  Silver  will  be  formed, 
as  Daguerre  formed  it.  If  two  glasses,  one  with  chloride,  and  the 
other  with  iodide  of  silver,  be  placed  in  the  light,  the  chloride  will 
darken  rapidly,  because  the  slender  beams  of  light  insinuating 
themselves  between  the  atoms  of  chlorine  and  silver,  in  spite  of 
their  powerful  affinity  for  each  other,  dissect  off  a portion  of  the 
chlorine,  which,  being  a gas  at  ordinary  temperatures,  escapes, 
leaving  behind  silver  with  less  chloii/ne  attached,  called  subchloride, 
which  is  violet-colored. 

The  iodide  will  not  be  visibly  changed,  but  the  printing  of  a 
picture  by  the  development  process  will  fully  illustrate  the  latent 
effect  pf  light  upon  it. 

If  much  nitrate  of  silver  is  used  in  the  first  experiment,  the  mass 
of  chloride  formed  will  only  be  darkened  externally  by  exposure  to 
the  light,  aa  may  be  seen  by  stirring  after  the  exposure.  A thin 
film  of  chloride,  therefore,  only  can  be  used.  Such  a film  it  would 
be  difficult  to  get  by  spreading  the  chloride  upon  any  substance, 
but  it  is  beautifully  obtained  in  the  various  photographic  processes 
by  forming  it  in  thin  layers  of  paper,  albumen,  collodion,  &c.,  as  the 
details  of  the  manipulation  will  show. 

PAPER. 

The  ordinary  writing-paper  is  not  sufficiently  uniform  in  texture, 
to  be  as  well  adapted  to  the  more  delicate  photographic  uses  as 


23 


f I 

that  expressly  prepared  for  the  purpose,  which  can  be  obtained 
of  any  dealer  in  photographic  materials.  The  Saxony  paper 
(papier  Saxe)  is  as  good  as  any,  and  less  variable  in  its  quality. 

It  can  be  procured  in  sheets  aboqt  eighteen  by  twenty-two  inches. 

In  cutting  it  into  pieces  of  the  desired  size,  as  well  as  in  all  subse- 
quent operations,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  soil  it,  or  to  allow  it 
to  come  in  contact  with  the  fingers  more  than  necessary.  It  is 
well  to  mark  the  smoother  side  in  the  corner  of  each  piece  with 
a pencil.  It  may  be  used  plain,  or  a glaze  may  be  imparted  to  it 
by  means  of  albumen.  Plain  paper  is  preferred  by  many  by  rea- 
son of  its  soft  and  more  artistic  effect,  and  success  with  it  is  quite 
certain ; but  the  finer  surface  imparted  by  albumen  gives  greater 
sharpness  of  details,  and  makes  the  use  of  rt  in  copying  leaves  ad- 
visable. Thin  paper,  whether  plain  or  albumenized,  gives  sharper 
priuts  of  leaves  than  thick  of  tile  same  quality.  Silk,  linen,  and 
other  fabrics  may  be  used  instead  of  paper. 

. SALTING  AND  ALBUMENIZING, 

The  first  treatment  of  the  paper  is  to  impregnate  it  uniformly 
with  some  chloride,  which  in  the  subsequent  operation  of  sensi- 
tizing, may  be  converted  into  chloride  of  silver.  Many  chlorides 
are  well  adapted  to  this  purpose.  Chloride  of  sodium  (common 
salt)  is  always  at  hand,  but  chloride  of  ammonium  can  be  ob- 
tained pure  more  readily.  The  proportions  of  chloride  in  the 
formulae  given  may  be  varied  with  advantage  for  different  sub- 
jects. When  a weak  negative,  a delicate  leaf,  such  as  the  Maiden- 
hair, is  to  be  copied,  especially  in  dull  weather,  by  using  a few 
more  grains  of  chloride  to  the  ounce  of  water,  more  vigorous  prints 
can  be  obtained. 

Plain  Paper . — Fill  a shallow  dish  or  tray  of  porcelain  or 
queensware  to  the  depth  of  half  an  inch  or  more,  with  a solution 
made  according  to  annexed  formula. 

k - * 


*■ 


Pure  Water, 16  ounces. 

Chloride  of  Sodium,  or  of  Ammonium,  128  grains. 

Immerse  half  a dozen  papers  one  by  one.  Turn  the  whole  of 
them  over,  and  take  them  out  in  the  order  in  which  they  were  im- 
mersed, and  hang  them  up  separately  to  dry,  as  directed  in  the  pre- 
liminary remarks. 

One  grain  of  refined  gelatine  added  to  each  ounce  of  the  salting 
solution  given  above,  imparts  more  firmness  to  the  paper  and  im- 
proves the  tone.  It  will  dissolve  readily  by  gently  warming  the 
liquid,  which  should  then  be  filtered  before  immersing  the  papers. 

Albumenized  Paper. — Paper  of  this  kind,  of  the  most  supe- 
rior quality,  is  found  ready  prepared  in  the  trade.  Where  good 
results  are  desired  with  the  greatest  economy  of  time  and  expense, 
the  amateur  will  find  it  advisable  to  purchase  rather  than  to  prepare 
it  himself.  By  means  of  the  following  formula,  such  as  desire  may 
with  proper  care  obtain  excellent  results  : 

Pure  Water, 4 ounces. 

Albumen, 8 “ 

Chloride  of  Ammonium,  . . . 120  grains. 

An  egg  will  be  found  to  furnish  about  an  ounce  of  albumen. 
Each  egg  should  be  broken  separately  by  a smart  blow  against  the 
edge  of  a glass,  and  the  white  dropped  into  the  glass.  Should  the 
membranous  cords  that  attach  the  yolk  to  the  inner  membrane  of 
the  shell,  pass  along  into  the  glass,  they  must  be  removed  by  means 
of  a small  wire  or  tooth-pick.  The  whole  must  be  beaten  to  a per- 
fect froth,  and  then  allowed  to  pass  into  the  liquid  state  again. 
The  clear  liquid  may  then  be  measured  out,  and  the  water  in  which 
the  chloride  has  been  dissolved  added.  The  mixture  is  then  to  be 
beaten  for  five  minutes,  and  placed  aside,  best  in  a tall  jar,  to  sub- 
side. The  clear  liquid  may  then  be  strained  through  a piece  of 
cambric  into  a tray.  Take  the  paper  by  two  opposite  corners, 
bend  it,  place  the  convex  middle  part  on  the  liquid  first,  and  lower 


D 

% 


25 


* % 

it  gradually  toward  the  corners,  so  as  to  drive  all  air-bubbles  for- 
ward. Allow  it  to  remain  two  minutes,  raise  it  up  gently,  aud  if 
any  spots  appear  free  from  albumen,  it  must  be  replaced  upon  the 
liquid  in  the  same  way  for  the  same  length  of  time.  After  removal, 
it  is  to  be  pinned  up  by  two  corners  to  dry,  in  a place  free  from 
dust.  By  using  a larger  proportion  of  albumen,  a higher  gloss  may 
be  obtained,  and  less  chloride  should  be  used.  Thin  paper  is  more 
easily  albumenized  than  thick. 

SENSITIZING. 

This  operation  consists  in  converting  the  chloride  with  which  the 
paper  is  now'  impregnated  into  the  Chloride  of  Silver,  by  bringing 
it  in  contact  with  Nitrate  of  Silver  in  solution.  It  requires  the 
darkened  room.  Make  enough  solution  according  to  the  formula, 

Pure  "Water,  ......  1 ounce. 

Nitrate  of  Silver, 60  grains. 

to  fill  a shallow  queensware  dish  to  the  depth  of  half  an  inch.  The 
dish  should  be  well  washed  before  use  with  pure  water,  and  for  the 
sake  of  economy  of  solution,  should  not  be  much  larger  than  the 
paper  to  be  sensitized.  Well  water  is  preferable  to  rain  water, 
collected  from  wooden  roofs  or  preserved  in  wooden  cisterns,  for 
making  silver  solutions,  as  salts  are  present  in  small  quantity, 
and  do  not  precipitate  much  silver,  or  otherwise  injure  the  solution. 

If  there  is  a precipitate,  the  solution  should  be  filtered  into  the 
tray,  or  be  allowed  to  stand  for  a day  or  two,  and  the  clear  liquid 
then  be  carefully  poured  off  into  the  tray.  If  a scum  appears  upon 
the  solution  in  the  tray,  it  may  be  removed  by  drawing  slips  of 
blotting-paper  over  it.  Lower  the  plain  chlorided,  or  albumen- 
ized, paper  upon  it  as  directed  in  albumenizing.  If  it  curls  up  at 
first,  breathing  upon  it  will  in  most  cases  flatten  it  at  once.  As 
soon  as  the  sheet  has  become  perfectly  flat,  lift  it  up  by  one  corner, 

26 

sfe * 


*■ 


pass  a smooth  glass  rod  over  it,  to  wipe  oft’  any  air-bubbles  that 
may  be  on  it,  and  prevent  uniform  contact  with  the  solution,  re- 
place it  on  the  bath,  and  allow  it  to  remain  about  three  minutes  if 
plain,  or  from  three  to  six  minutes  if  albumenized.  Then  lift  out 
one  corner  by  means  of  the  glass  rod,  attach  a spring  clip,  or  put  a 
pin  through  it,  allow  it  to  drain  for  a moment  over  the  tray,  and 
hang  it  up  to  dry  in  the  dark,  as  directed  in  the  Preliminary  Re- 
marks. It  will  dry  more  quickly  if  the  drop  at  the  lower  corner 
is  removed,  after  it  has  been  hanging  a few  minutes,  by  touching  it 
with  a piece  of  blotting-paper.  It  should  also  be  kept  in  the  dark 
when  dry.  It  is  best  to  use  it  soon  after  it  is  dry,  as  it  generally 
becomes  discolored  in  a day  or  two,  even  in  the  dark. 

The  discoloration  of  the  sensitizing  solution  that  takes  place 
after  a short  use,  will  not  affect  the  paper  permanently.  It  is  well, 
however,  not  to  expose  the  bath  to  light  more  than  necessary.  It 
may  be  decolorized  if  desired,  by  adding  about  a tablespoonful  of 
kaolin  to  half  a pint,  shaking  it,  allowing  it  to  stand  for  a few 
hours,  and  filtering  before  use. 

Each  sheet  of  paper  sensitized,  takes  with  it  a portion  of  silver 
from  the  bath  as  chloride  of  silver.  When  the  bath  has  become 
much  impoverished  by  use,  the  pictures  will  present  a mealy  ap- 
pearance. The  addition  of  a few  crystals  of  Nitrate  of  Silver  to  the 
bath  will  remedy  this  defect. 

Fuming  with  Ammonia. — By  subjecting  thoroughly  dried 
sensitive  paper  to  the  action  of  ammonia  gas,  a sensitizing  bath  of 
only  thirty  grains  of  nitrate  of  silver  to  the  ounce  of  water  will  pro- 
duce the  finest  results,  and  success  under  varying  circumstances  is 
rendered  more  certain.  Th e fuming  may  be  accomplished  b}T  bend- 
ing the  sheet  with  the  albumenized  side  out,  so  that  opposite 
corners  may  be  caught  by  a clothes-clip,  and  hanging  it  up  in  a 
box  with  a lid,  constructed  like  the  one  described,  but  smaller, 
having  on  the  bottom  a saucer  partially  filled  with  strong  aqua  am- 


& 


~k 


27 


* * 

monia.  From  three  to  ten  minutes  will  suffice  for  the  fuming. 

The  paper  should  then  be  used  immediately,  as  it  deteriorates 
after  fuming ; but  if  sensitized  on  a weak  bath,  as  recommended,  it 
may  be  kept  longer  before  fuming  than  if  sensitized  on  a sixty-grain 
bath.  The  ammonia  in  the  saucer  should  not  be  poured  back  into 
the  bottle,  as  it  will  generally  be  too  weak  to  be  used  again.  The 
fuming  may  also  be  accomplished  by  pinning  the  paper  by  the  four 
corners  on  a board,  sensitized  side  out,  and  covering  an  ordinary 
pasteboard  box,  in  the  bottom  of  which  a small  saucer  of  ammonia 
has  been  placed,  with  it. 

Ammonio- Nitrate  Process. — Plain  chlorided  paper  gives 
superior  prints  of  a beautiful  black  tone,  when  sensitized  by  Am- 
rnoni o-Nitrate  of  Silver.  In  salting  paper  for  this  process,  it  is  best 
to  use  about  five  grains  of  chloride  to  the  ounce  of  water.  To 
make  the  sensitizing  solution,  take 

Pure  Water,  ......  ^ ounce. 

Nitrate  of  Silver, 60  grains. 

Add  to  this  solution,  drop  by  drop,  strong  Aqua  Ammonia.  A 
heavy  brown  precipitate  of  oxide  of  silver  will  be  formed.  Con- 
tinue to  add  ammonia  cautiously,  drop  by  drop,  and  stir  the  solu- 
tion after  each  addition  with  a glass  rod  until  it  clears  up.  No 
more  ammonia  should  be  added  than  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
clear  it,  and  in  order  to  be. certain  of  the  absence  of  free  ammonia, 
add  to  the  clear  solution,  drop  by  drop,  solution  of  Nitrate  of  Silver 
until  it  becomes  slightly  turbid  again.  Filter  and  preserve  for  use  in 
a bottle  covered  with  black  paper  or  asphaltum  varnish.  To  apply 
this  solution,  pour  a small  quantity  into  a saucer,  dip  into  it  a tuft 
of  clean  raw  cotton,  and  moisten  the  chlorided  paper  as  evenly 
and  thoroughly  as  possible,  by  drawing  the  cotton  brush  length- 
wise and  crosswise  over  the  sheet,  pinned  by  its  four  corners  to  a 
board.  Dry  it  as  other  paper.  If  the  paper  is  not  sufficiently 


moistened,  or  if  free  ammonia  be  present,  white  lines  will  appear 
upon  the  print. 


EXPOSURE  TO  LIGHT. 

The  leaf,  or  object  to  be  copied,  is  now  to  be  pressed  into  close 
contact  with  the  sensitive  paper,  and  exposed  to  light.  To  accom- 
plish this,  cut  a piece  of  window  glass  of  the  size  of  the  sensitive 
paper  in  half,  allow  the  halves  to  remain  in  contact  at  the  ends, 
and  place  upon  them  a dozen  layers  of  soft,  paper,  and  on  top  of 
these  a piece  of  black  cloth  or  velvet,  with  the  nap  uppermost. 

Lay  the  sensitive  paper  on  the  cloth,  and  upon  it  the  leaf  or  object 
to  be  copied,  and  cover  it  with  a flat  well-cleaned  piece  of  glass 
about  the  size  of  the  paper.  Compress  the  whole  by  means  of  the 
spring  clips,  embracing  the  upper  and  lower  glasses,  one  at  each 
corner  of  the  lower  halves.  The  clips  will  answer  the  purpose 
better  if  the  round  projecting  ends  are  cut  off,  so  as  not  to  shade 
the  sensitive  paper  more  than  necessary. 

Expose  to  the  sunlight,  so  that  the  rays  strike  the  sensitive  paper 
as  perpendicularly  as  possible.  It  will  begin  to  darken  immediately. 

The  exposure  must  be  continued  until  the  print  becomes  very  much 
darker  than  it  is  to  appear  when  finished,  as  the  subsequent  opera- 
tions of  toning  and  fixing  reduce  its  intensity  greatly.  The  exact 
degree  of  over-printing  required  can  only  be  ascertained  by  expe- 
rience.  The  print  may  be  examined  from  time  to  time  during  the 
exposure  with  ordinary  care,  without  disturbing  the  leaf,  by  re- 
moving the  clip  from  one  of  the  lower  halves,  and  bending  back 
the  sensitive  paper,  cloth,  &c.  If  not  sufficiently  exposed,  replace 
as  at  first  in  the  sunlight.  By  pasting  a strip  of  paper  over  the 
adjoining  edges  of  the  lower  halves,  a convenient  hinge  is  formed. 

In  using  a glass  negative,  the  covering  glass  is  not  used,  the  nega- 
tive itself,  placed  with  the  collodion  side  next  to  the  sensitive  paper, 
taking  its  place. 

29 

% * 


The  time  required  to  print  in  any  case  depends  upon  the  inten- 
sity of  the  subject,  the  strength  of  the  light,  and  the  sensitiveness 
of  the  paper.  A Common  Polypody  will  require  more  time  than 
the  delicate  Maidenhair,  a winter  day  longer  than  a summer  day, 
Ferricyanide  of  Potassium  longer  than  Chloride  of  Silver. 

The  prints  may  be  kept  in  a dark  drawer  for  several  hours,  at 
times  even  several  days,  without  deteriorating,  before  toning  and 
fixing. 

Very  convenient  printing-frames  are,  sold  by  all.  dealers  in  photo- 
graphic materials. 

TONING  AND  FIXING. 

If  a solution  of  Hyposulphite  of  Soda  be  added  to  the  glass  con- 
taining Chloride  of  Silver,  in  the  experiment  previously  suggested, 
the  chloride  will  dissolve  and  disappear,  just  as  a lump  of  sugar  on 
the  addition  of  water.  If  a print  on  removal  from  the  frame  is  ex- 
posed to  light,  it  will  soon  darken  uniformly,  and  the.  picture  be 
lost.  If  it  is  first  placed  in  a solution  of  Hyposulphite  of  Soda,  the 
white  chloride,  which  was  protected/ from  the  action  of  the  light,  by 
the  dark  portions  of  the  leaf,  will  he  dissolved,  whilst  the  portions 
chauged  by  light  will  only  be  turned  a foxy  red.  The  print  in  this 
condition  can  be  exposed  to  the  light  for  any  length,  of  time  with- 
out change,  since  the  Chloride  oft  Silver  changeable  by  light  has 
been  dissolved  away. 

The  principle  of  fixing  in  all  photographic  processes  is  illustrated 
by  the  above  experiment.  But  the  print,  though  not  destroyed, 
is  robbed  of  half  its  beauty  by  the  hypo,  by  reason  of  the  change 
of  color.  In  order  to  prevent  this,  it  is  in  most  cases  subjected 
to  the  previous  operation  of  Toning , which  consists  in  substituting 
gold  for  the  silver  compound  in  the  unfixed  print.  Toning  is  both 
tedious  and  expensive,  and  requires  considerable  care  and  expe- 
rience, so  that  in  many  cases,  where  the  reddish  color  is  not  very 
30 


objectionable,  as  in  forest  leaves,  the  prints  may  be  placed  in  the 
Fixing  Batli,  subsequently  given,  immediately  after  printing.  In 
most  cases,  however,  the  trouble  and  expense  of  toning  will  be 
more  than  repaid  by  the  increased  beauty  of  the  prints.  The 
details  of  toning  vary  very  much.  The  following  method  is 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  amateurs.  The  prints  should  be  washed 
in  running  water  ten  minutes,  or  in  half  a dozen  changes  in  a 
dish,  pouring  off  dry  before  each  change,  and  finally  be  placed  in 
a solution  of  common  salt,  containing  about  two  grains  to  the 
ounce  of  water,  about  three  minutes.  Unless  the  nitrate  of  silver  in 
the  print  be  thoroughly  removed  in  this  way , it  will  render  the  Toning  Bath 
worthless. 

Chloride  of  Gold  is  sold  in  bottles  containing  fifteen  grains.  Dis- 
solve the  contents  of  one  in  thirty  drachms  of  water,  add  a drop  of 
Hydrochloric  acid,  and  preserve  as  a stock  solution  in  a bottle. 
Make  several  ounces  of  a saturated  solution  of  washing  soda  also 
as  a stock  solution.  When  prints  are  to  be  toned,  prepare  the  fol- 
lowing 

Toning  Bath. 

Water,  .......  4 ounces. 

Chloride  of  Gold  (solution),  . . . 1 drachm. 


Pour  into  a tray,  and  drop  in  a small  piece  of  blue  litmus  paper.  It 
will  become  bright  red  by  reason  of  the  free  acid.  Render  it  alka- 
liue  by  adding  drop  by  drop  from  the  soda  solution,  stirring  all  the 
while  with  a glass  rod,  until  che  color  of  the  paper  appears  to  be 
changing  to  blue.  Drop  in  another  blue  piece,  and  if  after  standing 
for  five  minutes,  it  still  retains  its  blue  color,  the  bath  is  in  condi- 
tion to  use,  and  will  remain  so  for  several  hours.  Immerse  three 
or  four  of  the  washed  prints  in  it  one  by  one.  Wave  the  dish 
gently  backward  and  forward  to  prevent  their  sticking  together, 
or  projecting  partially  above  the  surface,  or  some  parts  will  be 
imperfectly  toned.  The  pi'ints  change  first  to  dingy  red,  thence 


& 


31 


¥— ■* 

to  a chocolate  brown,  and  finally  to  a rich  purple,  when  they  must 
be  removed  to  a basin  of  clean  water.  They  must  be  somewhat 
over-toned,  as  fixing  partially  destroys  their  color.  A little  experi- 
ence will  teach  the  degree  of  over-toning  required.  If  too  much 
toned,  they  will  retain  a cold  inky  appearance  after  fixing;  if  too 
little,  a foxy  red  appearance.  Pictures  much  over-printed  take  the 
blackest  tones.  Plain  paper  tones  more  rapidly  than  albumenized. 

The  first  prints  pass  to  the  proper  tone  in  about  three  minutes, 
but  after  the  bath  becomes  weakened  by  use,  the  later  ones  ma}^ 
require  ten  minutes,  or  even  more.  It  is  poor  economy  to  use  a 
bath  in  such  a condition.  It  is  advisable,  therefore,  when  it  works 
very  slowly,  to  transfer  the  prints  to  clean  water,  add  a drachm 
of  gold  solution  to  the  bath,  and  neutralize  as  at  first,  and  retransfer 
the  untoned  prints  to  the  bath. 

If  allowed  to  remain  alkaline  for  several  days,  it  will  become 
utterly  worthless,  but  if  hydrochloric  acid  be  added  to  it  drop  by 
drop,  until  a piece  of  blue  litmus  paper  dipped  in  it  becomes  red, 
it  will  keep  as  well  as  the  stock  solution,  aud  need  only  be  neu- 
tralized with  the  soda  solution  before  using,  as  in  the  first  place. 

By  adopting  this  plan,  no  gold  will  be  wasted  by  keeping  the  bath 
in  its  best  working  condition  up  to  the  last  print. 

The  prints  as  fast  as  toned  may  be  placed  in  a dish  of  clean 
water  until  all  are  toned.  Make  a 

Fixing  Bath 

of  Water,  .......  6 ounces. 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda,  ....  1 ounce. 

Pour  the  solution  into  a dish,  and  transfer  the  prints  to  it  one  by  one, 
by  taking  them  by  the  corners  and  immersing  them  quickly,  taking 
care  not  to  touch  the  faces  of  them  with  fingers  soiled  with  the  hyposul- 
phite, or  black  spots  will  be  produced.  A slight  change  of  color 
will  take  place,  but  the  purple  color  will  return  if  they  have  been 


*■ 


sufficiently  toned.  The  prints  should  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
Fixing  Bath  from  ten  to  twenty  minutes. 

By  using  one  hand  for  the  Toning  Bath,  and  the  other  for  the 
Fixing  Bath,  the  prints  may  be  transferred  as  fast  as  they  are  toned, 
immediately  to  the  Fixing  Bath.  In  doing  so,  however,  there  is 
danger  of  conveying  through  forgetfulness,  a little  of  the  hyposul- 
phite to  the  Toning  Bath,  and  thus  injuring  it. 

WASHING  AND  MOUNTING. 

After  fixing,  the  prints  must  be  freed  from  the  last  traces  of  hypo- 
sulphite. The  yellowing  of  many  photographs  can  be  attributed  to 
imperfect  washing.  It  is  best  accomplished  in  running  water,  by 
placing  the  prints  loosely  in  porcelain  or  wooden  vessels  in  a bath 
tub,  and  allowing  the  water  to  flow  on  to  the  bottom  of  the  dish  for 
about  four,  hours,  or  they  may  be  placed  in  a basket  in  a running 
stream  of  clear  water.  If  running  water  is  not  to  be  had,  they 
should  be  passed  through  several  changes  of  water,  to  remove  the 
larger  part  of  the  hyposulphite,  and  then  be  allowed  to  soak  in 
clear  water,  which  should  be  renewed  half  a dozen  times  at  intervals 
of  twenty  minutes.  They  are  then  to  be  hung  up  in  the  air  to 
dry.  The  curling  in  drying,  especially  of  albumenized  prints,  may 
be  prevented  by  hanging  up  two  back  to  back. 

Prints  may  be  mounted  on  printers’  cardboard,  with  freshly  pre- 
pared solution  of  gum  arabic,  or  warm  solution  of  gelatine,  or  thick 
starch  paste.  Mucilage  which  has  become  acid  will  cause  the  prints 
to  deteriorate  after  mounting. 

Their  appearance  is  much  improved  after  mounting  by  passing 
them  under  a photographic  roller,  or  pressing  under  an  ordinary 
letter  press.  If  the  paste  is  allowed  to  dry  under  pressure,  they 
will  not  bend. 


33 


Writttiwj.  % Derelo.pmeat. 


This  process  is  simply  given  as  an  illustration  of  the  latent  effect 
of  light  upon  Iodide  and  Bromide  of  Silver.  It  is  substantially  that 
of  Talbot.  The  beginner  cannot  expect  as  good  results  with  this 
as  with  the  ordinary  process. 

Float  Saxe  paper  on  a bath  of 

Water,  .......  20  ounces. 

Iodide  of  Potassium,  ....  120  grains. 

Bromide  of  Potassium,  . . . .30  graips. 

until  it  ceases  to  curl  up ; sensitize  when  dry  on  a bath  of 

Water, 1 ounce. 

Nitrate  of  Silver,  . . . . .30  grains. 

Acetic  Acid,  No.  8,  ....  1 drachm. 

Dry  in  u perfectly  dark  room.  Expose  under  a negative  about  half 
a minute  to  diffused  light.  No  trace  of  a picture  will  be  seen. 
Develop  by  lamplight,  by  placing  it  in  a clean  dish  containing  a 
saturated  solution  of  Gallic  Acid,  made  by  filling  a bottle  with  water, 
and  placing  in  it  more  crystals  of  gallic  acid  than  will  dissolve  upon 
shaking.  The  solution  will  keep  best  if  a lump  of  camphor  be 
added.  The  development  of  the  picture,  if  it  has  received  the 
proper  exposure,  will  be  complete  in  about  fifteen  minutes;  it  is 
then  to  be  well  washed  in  cold,  and  best  subsequently  in  warm 
water,  and  then  fixed  in  a solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  contain- 
ing one  ounce  of  the  hyposulphite  to  two  ounces  of  water. 

34 


IfmcsssBS  without  Silver. 


*- 


To  sucli  as  do  not  desire  to  enter  as  deeply  into  photography  as 
the  preceding  process  seems  to  require,  the  two  following  processes 
recommend  themselves  by  their  simplicity,  certainty,  and  inexpen- 
siveness, whilst  they  are  well  adapted  to  botanical  purposes,  and 
serve  as  a good  introduction  to  photographic  manipulation  before 
entering  upon  the  more  complex  and  sensitive  silver  process. 

Blue  Photographs. 

Moisten  a piece  of  ordinary  writing-paper,  or  papier  Saxe,  pinned 
by  the  four  corners  to  a board,  uniformly  by  means  of  a tuft  of 'raw 
cotton,  in  a solution  of 

Ferricyanide  of  Potassium  (Red  Prussiate  of  Potash),  100  grains. 

Water,  .........  1 ounce. 

When  dry  it  will  be  of  a bright  yellow  color,  and  ready  to  be 
printed  on.  Proceed  as  in  Section,  Exposure  to  Light.  It  will  re- 
quire from  half  an  hour  to  several  hours  to  print.  On  removal 
from  the  printing-frame,  the  yellow  picture  on  a blue  ground  is 
fixed  by  simply  washing  it  in  water  until  the  yellow  portion  be- 
comes perfectly  white,  by  the  solution  of  the  unchanged  ferricyanide 
of  which  it  is  composed. 

Brown  Photographs. 

If  a saturated  Solution  of  Bichromate  of  Potash  is  used  instead  of 
the  ferricyanide,  brown  prints  may  be  obtained  in  the  same  way. 

35 

Ar — — 4 


* — — * 

Paper  prepared  with  the  bichromate  is  more  sensitive  than  the  pre- 
ceding, and  will  render  the  venation  of  leaves  almost  as  well  as 
chloride  of  silver  paper,  whilst  the  ferricyanide  paper  will  only 
render  the  venation  of  the  more  delicate  leaves. 

The  strength  of  the  solution  may  be  varied  in  the  two  processes, 
but  if  the  solution  is  too  weak,  or  the  paper  too  porous,  the  print 
will  be  too  much  within  the  texture  of  the  paper,  and  appear  best 
as  a transparency. 

In  a very  hot  sun  with  the  ferricyanide  paper,  the  venation  will 
in  some  cases  appear  blue  on  a yellow  ground. 


Iftemaual  of  Stains. 


Stains  upon  the  hands  or  clothing  caused  by  Nitrate  of  Silver  are 
as  permanent  as  indelible  ink,  of  which  it  is  the  base,  the  ammonio- 
nitrate  answering  well  for  marking  purposes.  They  may  be 
readily  removed  by  rubbing  with  a lump  of  cyanide  of  potassium, 
the  edge  of  which  has  been  dipped  in  water. 

If  of  long  standing,  and  very  black,  they  are  more  easily  removed 
by  the  cyanide,  if  they  are  first  moistened  with  a few  drops  of  a 
tincture  of  iodine.  Cyanide  of  potassium  is  a most  violent  poison , and 
should  not  be  allowed  to  penetrate  fresh  cuts,  nor  should  the  vapor 
arising  from  it  be  inhaled.  A very  strong  solution  of  hyposulphite 
of  soda  will  answer  almost  as  well,  if  the  tincture  of  iodine  be  used, 
and  is  comparatively  harmless. 

Red  stains  made  by  acids  may  be  removed  by  treating  them  with 
ammonia  or  dilute  solution  of  washing  soda. 

36 

U — * 


apparatus  ami  Chemicals. 


In  the  following  complete  schedule  of  apparatus  and  chemicals 
employed  in  all  the  preceding  processes,  the  apparatus'  required,  in 
addition  to  such  as  every  household  furnishes,  is  marked  with  an 
asterisk.  The  chemicals  are  classified  according  to  the  processes 
in  which  they  are  used.  The  whole  set,  or  such  selection  as  any 
one  may  make,  can  readily  be  obtained  from  any  Photographic 
Stock  dealer. 

Some  one  of  the  numerous  journals  devoted  to  Photography, 
would  be  found  very  useful  to  the  amateur  at  all  stages  of  his 
progress,  besides  furnishing  a record  of  the  progress  of  Photog- 
raphy and  its  newest  applications.  The  Philadelphia  Photogra- 
pher, a monthly  journal,  holds  the  very  highest  rank  at  home 
and  abroad  in  this  class  of  publications,  in  its  literary  and  typo- 
graphical, as  well  as  scientific  character.  Each  number  is  embel- 
lished with  a specimen  photograph,  generally  of  great  excellence; 
and  its  Editor  will  always  be  found  ready  to  assist  the  amateur, 
by  answering  through  its  columns  all  inquiries  on  Photographic 
subjects. 

Apparatus. 

*A  set  of  Apothecaries’  scales-and  weights. 

/ * A measuring  glass,  capacity,  4 ounces. 

*A  glass  funnel,  “ 6 ounces. 

*A  glass  stirring-rod,  about  8 inches. 

7 *Spring  elothcs-clips,  8 dozen. 


/*Giass  plates, — flat  window  glass, 

Two  porcelain  trays,  8 by  10  inches,  with  lip. 

/ A printing-frame,  8 by  10  inches. 

A filtering-stand. 

A quire  of  filter-paper,  or  package  of  filters  to  fit  the  glass 
funnel. 

A quire  of  Saxe  paper,  for  process  with  Silver. 


j^HEMICALS. 

Silver  Process, — 


Salting,  . . Chloride  of  Ammonium, 

1 ounce. 

Gelatine,  .... 

1 ounce. 

Sensitizing,  . Nitrate  of  Silver,  . 

Ammonio-  Nitrate 

1 ounce. 

^ and  Fuming,  Aqua  Ammonia,  FFF,  . 

1 pound. 

J. Toning , . . Chloride  of  Gold,  . 

15  grains. 

x Fixing,  . . Hyposulphite  of  Soda,  . 

Without  Silver, — 

1 pound. 

Blue,  . . Ferricyanide  of  Potassium, 

1 ounce. 

Brown,  . . Bichromate  of  Potash,  . 

2 ounces. 

By  Development,  Iodide  of  Potassium, 

. £ ounce. 

Bromide  of  Ammonium, 

. J ounce. 

Gallic  Acid,  .... 

| ounce. 

Acetic  Acid,  No.  8, 

4 ounces. 

Removing  Stains, . Tincture  of  Iodine, 

1 ounce. 

Cyanide  of  Potassium  (very  poisonous),  1 ounce. 

• % 


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A)jV>c 


